>History of the Antique Mosaic Art

Mosaic A mosaic is a form of decorative art, in which small tiles or fragments of pottery (known as tesserae, diminutive tessellae) are used to create a pattern or picture. It was used in ancient times for domestic interior decoration. Mosaics are particularly associated with Roman dwellings, for example on floors; but the craft has continued through the ages, and many modern examples exist. M.C. Escher was influenced by Moorish mosaics to begin is investigations into tesselation.

A full vision of the history of mosaics requires an understanding of all of the civilizations where the mosaic was present because this art form was not born in a particular place or time. Rather, it appeared sporadically in various cultures and locations not connected with each other, until finally this art form became more prominent and was subsequently developed and disseminated. Therefore, the beginnings of mosaic art are difficult to determine, but historians are generally in agreement that the origins emerged in the orient. In fact some of the first manifestations were: In Chaldean architecture, some two thousand years B.C., where some columns were covered with mosaics, small cones of clay were actually embedded in the structure of the column, and painted Fig. 1 – Uruk, Mesopotamia, second millennium B.C. In the ancient pre-dynasty tomb of UR, a city of Sumeria where two panels of a standard are in part decorated with mosaics, picturing scenes of victory. The first panel narrates scenes of war, while the second pictures scenes of peace. (fig. 2) Fig. 2 – Panels of Ur, third millennium B.C. – British Museum, London In ancient Egypt, there existed many decorations in glass paste in palaces and temples. The Egyptians were the first to discover the fusion of glass, and to create a flourishing industry which even led to the decoration of their ships. From this fact, one can conclude that it is likely that the usage of glass mosaics reached Italy from Egypt, for example the scenes of the Nile in the museum of Alexandria, of Tell Timai, Delta. In Alexandria, one can find many ancient mosaic decorations. In fact, two schools are discernible, that of the east extending towards Asia, in Syria and Byzantium, and the other towards Greece and Italy. Mosaics in the Orient The early spread of mosaics in Greece is well known. Among the most famous locations was Pergamo, the capital of Misia, where the first school of mosaics was born under the master artist Sosos. Mosaics became so popular that they were used in the decoration of even the most modest homes. These mosaics are still visible on the magnificent works of art found in various archeological sites. (fig. 3) They were produced in "ciottoli" (pebbles) which were combined in such a manner as to obtain contrasting colors and gradation of shading so as to give volume to the figures, the outlines of which were obtained with thing strips of led inserted in the plaster. Fig. 3 – “The lion hunt ” detail l – Pella, Macedonia 375 – 300 B.C. In the Fourth Century B.C. this art form changes fundamentally and reaches unexpected heights. No longer is use made of the "ciottoli" (pebbles) but instead small highly colored and brilliant pieces are employed. This very fine workmanship can be cited as examples of Hellenic painting, such as the mosaic of the sanctuary of primitive fortune in Palestrina. (fig. 4) This is an outstanding example of how the Greek craftsmanship reached extremely high levels of reality and perfection. Fig. 4 – Scenes of the Nile – Sanctuary of the primitive fortune – Palestrina Mosaics in ancient Rome In the Roman period, beginning in the first half of the First Century B.C., mosaics became an autonomous form of artistic expression. Mosaics were first used exclusively for the decoration of floors, meeting the need to create works of art that would persist over time. This form of artistic expression aimed at creating visual decorations that, contrary to paintings, could be walked on and could be easily washed. The first most outstanding examples of these mosaics were situated in the dining rooms of the homes where simple terra cotta could not be used because it was not sufficiently decorative. Paintings adorned the walls, but the mosaic flooring was ideal from the point of view of both its beauty and its practical aspects. (fig. 5) However, nowadays it is clear that mosaics are not eternal. Although some extraordinarily well preserved pieces have been found in archeological sites, mosaics are conditioned by the plaster and cement bases where they are placed, and hence they are subject to deterioration over time. Fig. 5 – “Non-brushed flooring” – Roman villa, Second Century A.D., Vatican Museum Fig. 6 – “Fountain, garden of the scientists” – Pompei, First Century A.D. At Pompei, one can note that mosaics were widely used also to decorate the walls of fountains, swimming pools, columns and vaulted ceilings, particularly in the fountains that graced gardens. They were made with glass paste, shells, and enamels to accentuate their brilliance. (fig. 6)

In the Roman period, various techniques of decoration became popular.

They included:

Opus signinum: In this technique developed by the Greeks the mosaic was constituted of "ciottoli", or pebbles, that were randomly placed, with rudimental designs, and cemented into place with clay or plaster.

(A) Opus tesselatum: In this technique, the mosaic is constituted of small pieces, mostly squares of about 1 centimeter, made of stone, enamel, and glass paste, also colored. The pieces were placed one next to the other with very little space between so as not to show the underlying base.
(B) Opus vermiculatum: This technique was very similar to the Opus tesselatum, differing mostly in the way in which the pieces were cut to shape and size best suited for the design that was being created. The outlines of figures were more accurately depicted.
(C) Opus sectile: In this type of mosaic, designs were not depicted with pieces of stone etc but instead with pieces of marble or hard stones, cut in such a manner to create uniform colors and patterns.
(D) Materials of various origins are found in mosaics. The most common are marble, glass paste, terracotta, mother of pearl, shells, enamels, gold and silver, depending on what was more suited to the effect that was sought.
 The mosaics were created directly on site, while the "eblemata" were created previously in the workshops. The "eblema" is a type of mosaic that can be transported and is of extremely high quality, produced for the most part with very small pieces for designed that are elaborate and of great beauty, These mosaics were destined to the center of the floor, and were transported to the location in terracotta molds. The term "eblema" was also used to designate the central portion of a mosaic, with well defined scenes, while around this center the rest of the surface had less elaborate decorations, mostly geometric designs. In the Roman period, various styles were developed linked to a particular period or religious phase. During the imperial period, mosaics were very similar to realistic painting, with scenes of landscapes and still life compositions. Some notable examples of this period were found in Pompei, such as: Eblema of the end of the First Century A.D., House of the Fauno, Pompei “Cat that captures a bird and marine still life”, National Museum – Naples (fig. 7) Mosaic in the House of the Fauno, Pompei “Battle of Alessandro against Dario”, between the Macedonians and the Persians, II – I Century A.D., National Museum – Naples (fig. 8)